Everything about Social Network totally explained
A
social network is a
social structure made of nodes (which are generally individuals or organizations) that are tied by one or more specific types of interdependency, such as
values,
visions,
idea,
financial exchange,
friends,
kinship, dislike,
conflict,
trade,
web links,
sexual relations,
disease transmission (
epidemiology), or
airline routes. The resulting
structures are often very
complex.
Social network analysis views social relationships in terms of
nodes and
ties.
Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. Research in a number of academic fields has shown that social networks operate on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, and play a critical role in determining the way problems are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals.
In its simplest form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being studied. The network can also be used to determine the
social capital of individual actors. These concepts are often displayed in a social network diagram, where nodes are the points and ties are the lines.
Social network analysis
Social network analysis (related to
network theory) has emerged as a key technique in modern
sociology,
anthropology,
sociolinguistics,
geography,
social psychology,
communication studies,
information science,
organizational studies,
economics, and
biology as well as a popular topic of speculation and study.
People have used the social network metaphor for over a century to connote complex sets of relationships between members of social systems at all scales, from interpersonal to international. In 1954,
J. A. Barnes started using the term systematically to denote patterns of ties that cut across the concepts traditionally used by the public and social scientists: bounded
groups (for example, tribes, families) and social
categories (for example, gender, ethnicity). Scholars such as
S.D. Berkowitz,
Stephen Borgatti,
Ronald Burt,
Kathleen Carley,
Katherine Faust,
Linton Freeman,
Mark Granovetter,
David Knoke,
Peter Marsden,
Nicholas Mullins,
Anatol Rapoport,
Stanley Wasserman,
Barry Wellman,
Douglas R. White, and
Harrison White expanded the use of social networks.
Social network analysis has now moved from being a suggestive metaphor to an analytic approach to a paradigm, with its own theoretical statements, methods and research tribes. Analysts reason from whole to part; from structure to relation to individual; from behavior to attitude. They either study
whole networks, all of the ties containing specified relations in a defined population, or
personal networks, the ties that specified people have, such as their "personal communities".
Several analytic tendencies distinguish social network analysis:
» There is no assumption that groups are the building blocks of society: the approach is open to studying less-bounded social systems, from nonlocal
communities to links among
Web sites.
» Rather than treating individuals (persons, organizations, states) as discrete units of analysis, it focuses on how the structure of ties affects individuals and their relationships.
» In contrast to analyses that assume that socialization into norms determines behavior, network analysis looks to see the extent to which the structure and composition of ties affect norms.
The shape of a social network helps determine a network's usefulness to its individuals. Smaller, tighter networks can be less useful to their members than networks with lots of loose connections (
weak ties) to individuals outside the main network. More open networks, with many weak ties and social connections, are more likely to introduce new ideas and opportunities to their members than closed networks with many redundant ties. In other words, a group of friends who only do things with each other already share the same knowledge and opportunities. A group of individuals with connections to other social worlds is likely to have access to a wider range of information. It is better for individual success to have connections to a variety of networks rather than many connections within a single network. Similarly, individuals can exercise influence or act as brokers within their social networks by bridging two networks that are not directly linked (called filling structural holes).
The power of social network analysis stems from its difference from traditional social scientific studies, which assume that it's the attributes of individual actors -- whether they're friendly or unfriendly, smart or dumb, etc. -- that matter. Social network analysis produces an alternate view, where the attributes of individuals are less important than their relationships and ties with other actors within the network. This approach has turned out to be useful for explaining many real-world phenomena, but leaves less room for individual agency, the ability for individuals to influence their success, because so much of it rests within the structure of their network.
Social networks have also been used to examine how organizations interact with each other, characterizing the many informal connections that link executives together, as well as associations and connections between individual employees at different organizations. For example, power within organizations often comes more from the degree to which an individual within a network is at the center of many relationships than actual job title. Social networks also play a key role in hiring, in business success, and in job performance. Networks provide ways for companies to gather information, deter competition, and
collude in setting prices or policies.
History of social network analysis
A summary of the progress of social networks and social network analysis has been written by Linton Freeman.
Precursors of social networks in the late 1800s include
Émile Durkheim and
Ferdinand Tönnies. Tönnies argued that social groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who share values and belief (
gemeinschaft) or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links (
gesellschaft). Durkheim gave a non-individualistic explanation of social facts arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors. He distinguished between a traditional society – "mechanical solidarity" – which prevails if individual differences are minimized, and the modern society – "organic solidarity" – that develops out of cooperation between differentiated individuals with independent roles.
Georg Simmel, writing at the turn of the
twentieth century, was the first scholar to think directly in social network terms. His essays pointed to the nature of network size on interaction and to the likelihood of interaction in ramified, loosely-knit networks rather than groups (Simmel, 1908/1971).
After a hiatus in the first decades of the twentieth century, three main traditions in social networks appeared. In the 1930s,
J.L. Moreno pioneered the systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (
sociometry), while a
Harvard group led by
W. Lloyd Warner and
Elton Mayo explored interpersonal relations at work. In 1940, A.R.
Radcliffe-Brown's presidential address to British anthropologists urged the systematic study of networks. However, it took about 15 years before this call was followed-up systematically.
Social network analysis developed with the kinship studies of
Elizabeth Bott in
England in the 1950s and the 1950s-1960s
urbanization studies of the
University of Manchester group of anthropologists (centered around
Max Gluckman and later
J. Clyde Mitchell) investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom. Concomittantly, British anthropologist
S.F. Nadel codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis.
In the 1960s-1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and traditions. One large group was centered around
Harrison White and his students at
Harvard University: Ivan Chase, Bonnie Erickson, Harriet Friedmann,
Mark Granovetter, Nancy Howell, Joel Levine, Nicholas Mullins, John Padgett, Michael Schwartz and
Barry Wellman. White's group thought of themselves as rebelling against the reigning
structural-functionalist orthodoxy of then-dominant Harvard sociologist
Talcott Parsons, leading them to devalue concerns with symbols, values, norms and culture. They also were opposed to the
methodological individualism espoused by another Harvard sociologist,
George Homans, which was endemic among the dominant
survey researchers and
positivists of the time.
Mark Granovetter and
Barry Wellman are among the former students of White who have elaborated and popularized social network analysis.
White's wasn't the only group. Significant independent work was done by scholars elsewhere:
University of California Irvine social scientists interested in mathematical applications, centered around Linton Freeman, including John Boyd, Susan Freeman, Kathryn Faust,
A. Kimball Romney and
Douglas White); quantitative analysts at the
University of Chicago, including Joseph Galaskiewicz, Wendy Griswold, Edward Laumann, Peter Marsden, Martina Morris, and John Padgett; and communication scholars at
Michigan State University, including
Nan Lin and
Everett Rogers. A substantively-oriented
University of Toronto sociology group developed in the 1970s, centered on former students of Harrison White: S.D. Berkowitz, Harriet Friedmann, Nancy Leslie Howard, Nancy Howell, Lorne Tepperman and
Barry Wellman, and also including noted modeler and
game theorist Anatol Rapoport.
Applications
SNA and network modeling approaches have been used in
epidemiology to help understand how patterns of human contact aid or inhibit the spread of diseases such as HIV in a population. The
evolution of social networks can sometimes be modeled by the use of agent based models, providing insight into the interplay between communication rules,
rumor spreading and social structure. Here is
an interactive model of rumour spreading
, based on rumour spreading
from model on
Cmol.
Diffusion of innovations theory explores social networks and their role in influencing the spread of new ideas and practices.
Change agents and
opinion leaders often play major roles in spurring the adoption of innovations, although factors inherent to the innovations also play a role.
Dunbar's number: The
rule of 150 suggested that the typical size of a social network is constrained to about 150 members due to possible limits in the capacity of the human communication channel. The rule arises from cross-cultural studies in
sociology and especially
anthropology of the maximum size of a
village (in modern parlance most reasonably understood as an
ecovillage). It is theorized in
evolutionary psychology that the number may be some kind of limit of average human ability to
recognize members and track emotional facts about all members of a group. However, it may be due to
economics and the need to track "
free riders", as it may be easier in larger groups to take advantage of the benefits of living in a community without contributing to those benefits.
Nevertheless, even as an average person may only be able to establish a few strong ties due to possible constraints of human communication channels,
Mark Granovetter found in one study that more numerous weak ties can be important in seeking information and innovation. Cliques have a tendency to
more homogeneous opinions as well as sharing many common traits. This
homophillic tendency was the reason for the members of the cliques to be attracted together in the first place. However, being similar, each member of the clique would also know more or less what the other members knew. To find new information or insights, members of the clique will have to look beyond the clique to its other friends and acquaintances. This is what Granovetter called the
"the strength of weak ties".
Guanxi is a central concept in Chinese society (and other East Asian cultures) that can be summarized as the use of personal influence. Guanxi can be studied from a social network approach.
The
small world phenomenon is the
hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is generally short. The concept gave rise to the famous phrase
six degrees of separation after a
1967 small world experiment by psychologist
Stanley Milgram. In Milgram's experiment, a sample of US individuals were asked to reach a particular target person by passing a message along a chain of acquaintances. The average length of successful chains turned out to be about five intermediaries or six separation steps (the majority of chains in that study actually failed to complete). The methods (and ethics as well) of Milgram's experiment was later questioned by an American scholar, and some further research to replicate Milgram's findings had found that the degrees of connection needed could be higher. Academic researchers continue to explore this phenomenon as Internet-based communication technology has supplemented the phone and postal systems available during the times of Milgram. A recent electronic small world experiment at
Columbia University found that about five to seven degrees of separation are sufficient for connecting any two people through e-mail.
The study of
socio-technical systems is loosely linked to social network analysis, and looks at relations among individuals, institutions, objects and technologies.
Metrics (Measures) in social network analysis
Betweenness: Degree an individual lies between other individuals in the network; the extent to which a node is directly connected only to those other nodes that are not directly connected to each other; an intermediary; liaisons; bridges. Therefore, it's the number of people who a person is connected to indirectly through their direct links.
Closeness: The degree an individual is near all other individuals in a network (directly or indirectly). It reflects the ability to access information through the "grapevine" of network members. Thus, closeness is the inverse of the sum of the shortest distances between each individual and every other person in the network.
(Degree) centrality: The count of the number of ties to other actors in the network. See also degree (graph theory).
Flow betweenness centrality: The degree that a node contributes to sum of maximum flow between all pairs of nodes (not that node).
Eigenvector centrality: a measure of the importance of a node in a network. It assigns relative scores to all nodes in the network based on the principle that connections to nodes having a high score contribute more to the score of the node in question.
Centralization: The difference between the n of links for each node divided by maximum possible sum of differences. A centralized network will have many of its links dispersed around one or a few nodes, while a decentralized network is one in which there's little variation between the n of links each node possesses
Clustering coefficient: A measure of the likelihood that two associates of a node are associates themselves. A higher clustering coefficient indicates a greater 'cliquishness'.
Cohesion: The degree to which actors are connected directly to each other by cohesive bonds. Groups are identified as ‘cliques’ if every actor is directly tied to every other actor, ‘social circles’ if there's less stringency of direct contact, which is imprecise, or as structurally cohesive blocks if precision is wanted.
(Individual-level) density: the degree a respondent's ties know one another/ proportion of ties among an individual's nominees. Network or global-level density is the proportion of ties in a network relative to the total number possible (sparse versus dense networks).
Path Length: The distances between pairs of nodes in the network. Average path-length is the average of these distances between all pairs of nodes.
Radiality: Degree an individual’s network reaches out into the network and provides novel information and influence
Reach: The degree any member of a network can reach other members of the network.
Structural cohesion: The minimum number of members who, if removed from a group, would disconnect the group.
Structural equivalence: Refers to the extent to which actors have a common set of linkages to other actors in the system. The actors don’t need to have any ties to each other to be structurally equivalent.
Structural hole: Static holes that can be strategically filled by connecting one or more links to link together other points. Linked to ideas of social capital: if you link to two people who are not linked you can control their communication.
Professional association and journals
The
International Network for Social Network Analysis is the professional association of social network analysis. Started in 1977 by
sociologist Barry Wellman at the
University of Toronto, it now has more than 1200 members and is now headed by George Barnett, a communication scientist at the
University of Buffalo.
Netwiki is a scientific wiki devoted to
network theory, which uses tools from subjects such as graph theory, statistical mechanics, and dynamical systems to study real-world networks in the social sciences, technology, biology, etc.
There are several journals:
Social Networks (including a social network map of social network scholars),
Connections, the
Journal of Social Structure and the
Network Science Report.
Network analytic software
Network analytic tools are used to represent the nodes (agents) and edges (relationship) in a standard mathematical models and analyze the network data. Like other software tools, the data can be saved in an external files. Additional information comparing the various data input formats used by network analysis software packages is available NetWiki. The network analysis tools allows researches to investigate large networks like – Internet, disease transmission, etc. These tools provide mathematical functions that can be applied to the network model.
Visual representation of the social networks is important to understand the network data and convey the result of the analysis
(External Link). Network analysis tools are used to change the layout, colors, size and advanced properties of the network representation.
Some of the social network tools are:
For scholarly research tools like “GUESS” (External Link), ORA (External Link), Pajek (External Link), the "network" package in "R"), or UCINet (External Link) are popular.
Examples of business oriented social network tools include NetMiner (External Link), InFlow(External Link),.
An open source package for Linux is Social Networks Visualizer or SocNetV (External Link)
For Mac OS X a related package installer of SocNetV (External Link) is available.
A systematic overview and comparison of a selection of software packages for social network analysis was provided by Huisman and Van Duijn (see references). A large list of software packages and libraries can be found under Computer Programs for Social Network Analysis.Further Information
Get more info on 'Social Network'.
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